Research Paper: Female Canadian Nurses in World War One

Throughout my research paper I will examine the role of female Canadian nurses in World War One (WW1). I will discuss the broad term of Military Nurses, which I will break down into two types of nurses, which are the Nursing Sisters (NS) who were part of the Canadian Army Medical Corps (CAMC), and Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses (VADs) who were developed by St. Johns Ambulance Association (SJAA). In addition to discussing who the Nursing Sisters and the VADs were, I will also focus on the conflict between these two groups of nurses. To continue, I will incorporate Military Nurse’s contributions to Canada in terms of physical, emotional, and mental health of the soldiers, as well as explain the nurses’ health in this time, which is discussed in three categories: general illnesses and diseases, Spanish Flu, and their emotional and mental health. Lastly, this paper will look at gender and how being female in a nursing profession in the war impacted them.

Military Nurses were an integral part of the World War One war effort. There were a variety of different kinds of Canadian nurses that helped in the war, however, the most common and beneficial kind of military nurse was the Nursing Sisters (NS). The Nursing Sisters were “all women, and most were single and between the ages of 21 and 38, [and] the average age was 24”[1]. In addition to this, these nursing sisters were educated in and licensed by different “Schools of Nursing”[2] in Canada or the United States and employed by the military. Furthermore, “only those women qualified as a military nurse were eligible to serve in an official capacity overseas, as a Nursing Sister in the Canadian Army Medical Corps (CAMC)”[3], thus being paid to serve as a nursing sister in the war. It is noted that to distinguish between the nurses in the war, those “nurses in the CAMC were titled as ‘Nursing Sisters’”[4]or “‘Bluebirds’ because of their uniform which included a blue, double-breasted blouse with open collar and a long blue skirt, worn with either a white veil or a wide brim hat… and a white apron over top of the uniform”[5]. The CAMC that the nursing sisters were part of was “established in 1904, which was a small organization at the beginning of the war”[6], began to grow because “after war was declared in August 1914, over 3,000 nursing sisters [went to war, and approximately another] 2,000 nurses went overseas with the CAMC [again] before the war was over”[7]. The CAMC was an essential organization in the time of the war because it gave job opportunities to both male and females working in the medical field to help the soldiers of the war. The nursing sisters played a variety of roles and did many jobs while working in the war within the CAMC, which included helping soldiers both physically, emotionally, and mentally with their injuries sustained in the conditions of the war.

Overall, these Nursing Sisters put their fears aside and brought their courage and skills as trained nurses to good use by playing an important and unforgettable position in World War One. However, in contrast to the licensed and paid nursing sisters, there was also another kind of nurses known as the Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses (VADs). These nurses were typically unmarried “young [women] from [middle] or upper-class families”[8]. These women were not trained as nurses and had little or no education in the medical field, and “several of the VADs were educated women with university degrees, and many were employed in various women’s occupations; such as teaching or clerical work”[9]. To add to this, because VADs were untrained and had no license in this field of work, these women were considered volunteers and frequently unpaid for their services to the war effort. To distinguish these nurses from the others, their uniforms were a “grey colour… with a plain white bib… [and] a small cross on the arm band”[10]. The VADs was established by St. Johns Ambulance Associations (SJAA), and “only [SJAA] in Canada could offer civilian women the possibility of direct involvement in the war overseas as casually trained VADs”[11]. SJAA was very strategic in their involvement with the Voluntary Aid Detachment Program that allowed these female civilians to help in the war with little to no current knowledge about the medical field, because it allowed more “helping hands” for other experienced doctors and ambulance personnel in crisis situations. “In 1914, when SJAA assumed responsibility for the VAD Program… initially there was no plan to establish a large-scale association of volunteer nurses, [but] only to provide a supportive subgroup of women volunteers to assist the men’s ambulance detachments”[12]. However, their initial plan to have help for the ambulance detachments was soon disregarded due to the influx of women volunteers at the start of the war, thus “the Canadian SJAA VAD plan quickly evolved into a women’s voluntary nursing organization”[13]. Overall, this program was very beneficial to the war effort and allowed women to take part in the war and do their patriotic duty.

Even though the VAD nurses were an important part of volunteering and helping in the medical field in World War One, there was a substantial amount of criticism and negativity towards this program and these nurses. Much of the criticism was from the Nursing Sisters and the Canadian Army Medical Corps. “The CAMC firmly resisted the use of VADS… [and] the fear was that VADs would both hamper the efficiency of the qualified nursing personnel and perhaps more significantly undermine the status of commissioned CAMC nurses as professional representatives of the military medical service”[14]. Furthermore, VADs were “not welcomed as nursing volunteers in the CAMC hospitals overseas”[15]. In this time, it is evident to see that qualifications and the licensed nurse were favored over the volunteering nurse, even though in some cases, both the licensed nurse and the volunteer nurse could perform similar tasks. To add to this, it is noted that many doctors believed “that the unqualified woman is a nuisance [and] is an absolute failure”[16]. Not only were the skills and abilities of the VAD nurses under criticism, but also their title of being a “nurse”. With the lack of education in nursing and medical field, many people in this time refused to acknowledge their title as a nurse or would criticize them as being a nurse because they did not have the qualifications or licenses to prove they are indeed a nurse. The criticisms, misconceptions, and negative “perceptions of the VAD nurse being frivolous and vacuous”[17] continued throughout the course of the war, influencing the outlook on the volunteer nurses helping in the war as well as women wanting to become a VAD.

Overall, both the nursing sisters of the CAMC and the VAD nurses of the SJAA were important groups to look at to better understand what was going on in World War One, however, another important aspect to discuss in health in the time of the war. In World War One, health was a key element in the survival and ability of the soldier to fight in the war. Nurses played a pivotal part in the overall health of Canada by focusing on the health of the soldiers in this time. The nursing sisters of the CAMC provided “medical services for Canadian and Allied troops and enemy prisoners of war at the front, [and] the CAMC operated treatment facilities and hospitals in various places”[18]. In addition to this, these nurses “were the first to meet injured soldiers and cleaned their wounds… and diligently bandaging and rebandaging injuries to ensure there would be no inflection, and they also assisted in surgeries”[19] to get bullets or debris out of the body, as well as to amputate or save an injured limb. To continue with the physical health of the soldiers that the nurses helped with, the nurses also focused on blood and its importance to the proper function of the body. Hemorrhaging of certain areas of the body became a focus for many nurses to help ensure they could keep the soldiers as physically healthy as possible. If a soldier was injured, nurses could “stop the bleeding either by direct pressure on the wound or by compressing the artery that supplied the injured limb”[20]. Furthermore, if the bleeding would not stop, further measures made be made such as surgery to the injured area, which nurses would assist in.

In addition to nurses helping with the physical health of the soldiers, nursing sisters also helped with both the emotional and mental health of the soldiers. “Shell Shock” was very common and was defined as “the distress caused by participation in- or the anticipation of- combat”[21] and it can “be applied to a wide range of mental conditions associated with long-continued fear, horror, anxiety, worry… [and] persistent recollection”[22]. Shell shock is one of the many emotional and mental ailments that the soldiers dealt with in World War One. To add to this, it is noted that physical trauma can lead to both emotional and mental trauma, and vise versa. “Physical trauma- whether experienced directly or witnessed in others- could result in a ‘breach’ or ‘tear’ in the ‘psychic sheath’… This process, which was accompanied by feelings of despair and hopelessness, could lead to a fragmentation of the human being, resulting in both negative emotions and a loss of cognitive or physical function… [In addition] to the changes in affect- the expression of grief or anger- the sufferer could experience physical symptoms, such as tremor or paralysis, and speech impairments such as stammering or mutism”[23]. In order for the nurses to help with the emotional and mental health of the soldiers, they had to be there for them, like “as a mother for the soldiers”[24]. “Nurses sensed that insanity would be a ‘normal’ response for any man who fully realized the deliberateness of the destruction that had been unleashed on him… [and so] it was safer to be ‘jolly’ and stoical than face suddenly and all at once what one had endured”[25]. With these points in mind, nurses used techniques to strengthen the emotional and mental health of the soldier. “Nurse conspired with their patients to ‘ignore’ or ‘forget’ the reality of warfare until it was safe to remember… In this way, they ameliorated the effects of the ‘psychic splintering’ caused by trauma… They contained the effects of this defensive fragmentation- the ‘forgetting’ and ‘denial’- until patients were able to confront their memories, incorporate them as part of themselves and become ‘whole’ beings again”[26]. Nurses tried many ways to help with the emotional and mental health of the soldier, through being there for them like a mother, as well as using techniques to help minimize the unsettling memories and to strengthen their emotional and mental health while fighting in the war.

Overall, nurses were “expected to watch over the health of their beloved enlisted brothers and cousins”[27], thus these “nurses participated fully in the care of the sick”[28] in terms of physical, emotional, and mental sickness. While the nurses cared for the sick, they also had to deal with a lot of other issues such as “ambulances breaking down”[29] which hindered the nurse’s ability to properly help the injured soldiers. In addition to this, “supply ships [were] sometimes kept days in the harbour, [which then there was a] lack of supplies for patients”[30]. These are just some of the factors that contributed to the work the nurses had to face while caring for the soldiers’ overall health and wellbeing. Not only were their issues the nurses faced while helping with the health of the soldiers, but also issues with their health that greatly hindered them and the abilities to do their jobs.

Health for these nurses in the time of World War One can be looked at through three categories: general illness and disease, Spanish Flu, and emotional and mental health. Even though many of the soldiers endured the same health struggles as the nurses, there were only a few medical professionals that would care for the nurses, unlike the many nurses that would care for the soldiers. The first category is general illness and disease, which has many scopes to it. Out of 39 documented illnesses of nurses, pneumonia and tuberculosis were two common diseases that spread amongst the nurses, and it is noted that “21 nurses got pneumonia and seven got tuberculosis”[31]. Even though these two illnesses were common, there was still many more illness and diseases that the nurses got in this time. In addition to pneumonia and tuberculosis that infected nurses, “four nurses got cancer, two got dysentery, one nurse got malaria, and another got peptic ulcers”[32]. However, there were still many nurses that had health issues but were not documented, but it was evident that their health was not what it should be. Another prevalent illness nurses faced was boils that they developed while helping patients and other infected peoples. It is noted by a Nursing Sister that she “had one [boil] on her arm and was it very painful, and by the next day she had one coming near her right eye on the cheekbone. Her face got swollen beyond recognition and her eye was not visible with the immense amount of swelling”[33]. Overall, there were many general illnesses and diseases that affected the nurses’ health and their abilities to help with soldiers and other sick people in the war.

Another category is the Spanish Flu and how it came to light towards the end of the war and greatly affected many people. “The ‘Spanish Flu’ was as devastating in Canada as it was elsewhere… the Flu entered Canada troop ships [and other helping forces in the war] during the summer of 1918… initially, the disease did not spread rapidly, however, it was obvious that by the end of September that Canada [and its wartime forces] had a problem”[34]. It is noted that the “Spanish influenza, coming at the end of one of the bloodiest conflicts the modern world had seen (World War One), was the most destructive pandemic known to history… An unusually virulent strain, Spanish influenza struck in waves beginning in the spring of 1918, with the most deadly one occurring in the fall of that year”[35]. This flu affected all people in the time of the war, however, “it was most lethal for individuals between the ages of 20 and 40”[36], which happened to be the age range for most nurses in this time. This epidemic greatly affected the overall health of everyone, but more importantly, it hindered the health and abilities of the nurses to grave extents. Nurses “were continually exposed to the disease as they cared for the ill, and many were in the age category most susceptible to it”[37]. There was “no cure for this illness, and it often had a frightening sudden onset, rapid progression, and alarming symptoms not typical of ordinary flu”[38]. Some of the symptoms of the Spanish flu included: “distinct chills, general bodily distress… cough, loss of appetite, and occasional vomiting”[39]. However, if serious precautions were not met, such as adequate rest, to ensure further complications would be avoided, nurses could develop other illness such as pneumonia. Due to many nurses not getting an adequate amount of rest to recover and become strong and somewhat healthy again because they were trying to care for others above themselves, many of them developed other illness and disease that further complicated their health situations. However, in some instances, there was “respite care for medical and nursing staff who might need an extended recovery period from their own health illnesses or from the harsh conditions encountered at other sites”[40]. However, in both cases, there was still illnesses and disease that predominated throughout the nursing staff that evidently deteriorated their health over time and impeded them from doing their nursing jobs.

Evidently, if many of the illnesses and disease such as pneumonia and tuberculosis, or the Spanish Flu got worse enough, death may be the only last option for the nurse. It is noted that most women that were subjected to some form of illness, disease, or other health issues had a high rate of death, similar to those killed in action. Continuing, not only was there physical health issues amongst the nurses in this time, but also emotional and mental health issues.

Not only did the soldiers suffer from debilitating emotional and mental health issues, but nurses suffered too. Many factors played in the emotional and mental health of the nurse, and it is noted that “when nurses suffered from the effects of war trauma, it was called “nervous debility” or “neurasthenia”, and physicians were quick to emphasize the roles that overwork, stress, and wartime conditions played”[41]. With the nurses’ jobs being so demanding and, in many cases, stressful, as well as the conditions and environment they endured in the war, brought on many ailments to the emotional and mental health of the nurse. “Those who nursed the wounded of the First World War worked hard to control their own emotions and behaviour… by remaining emotionally ‘strong’ themselves, and by maintaining safe boundaries of moral behaviour”[42]. Even though the nurse tried to stay emotionally strong for the soldiers or portrayed themselves as unaffected by the trauma they were experiencing in the war, these nurses were still suffering and overall, putting a strain on their emotional and mental health. “Sometimes energy could not be conserved [and] the effort of constant work under trying conditions led to losses of stamina that could not be replaced… [thus] more energy was lost than could be recouped… it was as if the energy drained out of the minds and bodies of the nurses, leaving them ‘worn out’”[43]. This emotional and physical drain on the nurses greatly hindered their physical, emotional, and mental health, as well as affected their abilities to care for the injured and sick in this time.

Health is a very important aspect in World War One when discussing nurses, however, another important aspect to look at is gender and how being a female impacted the nurse in this time. Initially, males have mainly predominated both the war and the medical field. However, these two areas have slowly began to see an influx of females for a variety of reasons, such as, the war effort needing more people to help in the war in terms of helping the soldiers who are wounded and injured. It is noted that, “the Great War was Canada’s first military engagement to employ significant numbers of nurses… to provide a space for women within a male-dominated sphere”[44]. This male-dominated sphere greatly affected these nurses because they were required to “fill the stereotypical roles”[45] of their gender as well as meet and follow guidelines to becoming the “perfect” female nurse. “According to both the Canadian army officials and Canadian nursing leaders, trained female nurses made ideal military nurses, based on a shared gender ideology about their expected work and behaviours… the domestic order created by a good wife, the altruistic caring expressed by a good mother, and the self-discipline of a good soldier were to be combined in the training of a good nurse”[46]. There is an evident gender split between nurses and other staff who helped in the war. Nursing is specifically gendered and geared towards females because of the many characteristics and attributes that they have, that are desirable for the “perfect” nurse. The first guideline of the “perfect” nurse starts off with selecting the “perfect” nurse for training, those who were “chosen were believed to be physically, intellectually, and psychologically superior… [and the ideal characteristics included good manners, [good] attitude, feminine appearance, and executive skills”[47]. It is evident that the position of a nurse was dominated by females because their characteristics and attributes were ideal and were all focused on the female. To continue, another guideline is the “strict discipline and how loyal they had to be to their superiors and obedient, [and in addition to this, the women had to be] polite, reliable, and efficient in caring for patients”[48]. Overall, to be a “good” nurse, they had to “display the right feminine altruistic attitude as well as automatically meeting the needs of the hospital first”[49]. It is clear to see that these female nurses were subjected to gendered roles and forced to act certain ways towards the superior male figure, similarly to other female-male job relationships. This also relates to the third guideline, which states that “nurses were to be taught self-abnegation and strict obedience in their relationships with physicians to always follow orders, and to meet the doctors’ needs”[50]. Females in this time were dominated by the male figure and evidently taught to be subordinate to the male doctors and physicians. These guidelines clearly show the gendered split in the medical field in World War One. The males were the superior doctors who made decisions, whereas the females were nurses and seen as lesser, who obeyed and did not question orders.

Not only was their guidelines and roles that the female nurses had to do to become that “perfect” nurse, there was also lots of negativity towards the nurses, primarily because they were females and should not be subjected to the conditions and jobs they were doing. Illness, death, stress, and other factors of the war and their job were “deemed unsuitable for women”[51] due to the idea that women were fragile, nurturing, caring people who should not have to experiences such traumatic conditions and situations that could potentially harm them. It is noticeable to see that these factors that were “deemed unsuitable for women”[52], were not deemed unsuitable for men because of the strict gender split between them when it came to the war. To add to this, “these ‘unsuitable’ working conditions were also threats to nurses’ femininity and womanliness, which would potentially harden them through their exposure to such unheard-of filth and disorder”[53]. There was worry and negativity towards females in the war because it placed stress on the ability of the female nurses to uphold that “perfect” nurse role. If the woman was starting to lose her femininity and become more masculine, this was not acceptable because she was not following the guidelines on how to be the “perfect” nurse. Once again, it is evident to see that gender plays a pivotal role in the lives of nurses. Gender looks at the perceived roles and attitudes of the individual and is an important factor when looking at nurses in the war. Therefore, nurses were greatly impacted by the gendered roles and overall environment of the war in many ways.

Overall, female Canadian nurses in World War One played a critical role. Both the Nursing Sisters in the Canadian Army Military Corps and the Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses of the St. Johns Ambulance Association had important positions in the war by helping the sick and injured soldiers. Even though the nursing sisters and the VADs did similar jobs and roles in the war, there was hostility between the two groups of nurses became of their levels of medical education. To continue, these nurses contributed to the overall health of Canada by helping with the physical health, such as injuries to limbs, and the emotional, and mental health, such as shell shock and other emotional trauma, of the soldiers, to help them have the best possible health to fight in the war and live their life after the war. Not only did nurses help with the health issues of the soldiers, but they also faced many physical ailments such as general illness and diseases, and the Spanish Flu, and emotional, and mental health issues similar to the soldiers. These health issues include common illnesses like pneumonia, as well as emotional and mental conditions like neurasthenia. Overall, health is an important factor to discuss while looking at female nurses in World War One. Furthermore, gender was also a big factor in the medical field because nurses were primarily female and had to have the characteristics and attributes, as well as follow the guidelines to be the “perfect” nurse. In addition to this, these females were in such a male-dominated sphere in terms of the war as well as the medical field, that there was lots of negativity towards them because they evidently did not belong in this environment and subjected to such conditions that may influence their femininity and overall, their perceived gender roles and ideologies. Therefore, the war impacted the gender of these nurses in many ways. Consequently, female Canadian nurses were essential in World War One with their help with the health of the soldiers, and in addition to this, the war impacted the nurses in terms of health and gender.

 

Endnotes:

[1] “The First World War’s Nursing Sisters,” Canadian Nurse (November 2016): 17.

[2] Susan Mann, “Where Hall All The Bluebirds Gone? On The Trail of Canada’s Military Nurses, 1914-1918,” Atlantis: Critical Studies in Gender, Culture & Social Justice, Vol 26.1 (Fall/Winter 2001): 40.

[3] Linda J. Quiney, “Gendering Patriotism: Canadian Volunteer Nurses as the Female ‘Soldiers’ of the Great War,” in Sarah Glassford and Amy Shaw (Ed.), A Sisterhood of Suffering and Service: Women and Girls of Canada and Newfoundland During the First World War, UBC Press, 2012: 103.

[4] “The First World War’s Nursing Sisters,” p. 17.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Cynthia Toman, Sister Soldiers of the Great War: The Nurses of the Canadian Army Military Corps, UBC Press, 2016: 15.

[7] Meryn Stuart, “Social Sisters: A Feminist Analysis of the Discourse of Canadian Military Nurse Helen Fowlds, 1915-1918,” in Jayne Elliott et al. (Ed.), Place & Practice in Canadian Nursing History, UBC Press, 2008: 27.

[8] Cynthia Toman, Sister Soldiers of the Great War, p. 75.

[9] Linda J. Quiney, “Gendering Patriotism,” p. 103.

[10] Ibid., 114.

[11] Ibid., 103.

[12] Ibid., 104.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid., 111.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Linda J. Quiney, “Assistant Angels: Canadian Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses in the Great War,” CBMH, Vol 15 (1998): 193.

[17] Ibid., 194.

[18] “The First World War’s Nursing Sisters,” p. 17.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Christine E. Hallett, Containing Trauma: Nursing Work in the First World War, Manchester University Press, 2011: 35.

[21] Ibid., 158.

[22] Ibid., 169.

[23] Ibid., 158.

[24] Meryn Stuart, “Social Sisters,” p. 28.

[25] Christine E. Hallett, Containing Trauma, p. 163.

[26] Ibid.

[27] Meryn Stuart, “Social Sisters,” p. 27-28.

[28] Diana J. Mansell, Forging the Future: A History of Nursing in Canada, Thomas Press Publication, 2004: 43.

[29] Letter from Mildred Forbes to Carine, Letter No. 76, Salonika, August 7th, 1916, in Andrea McKenzie (Ed.), War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes, UBC Press, 2016: 162.

[30] Letter from Laura Holland to her Mother, Letter No. 28, Lemnos, October 30th, 1915, in Andrea McKenzie (Ed.), War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes, UBC Press, 2016: 84.

[31] Dianne Dodd, “Canadian Military Nurse Deaths in the First World War,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, Vol 34, Number 2 (Fall 2017): 339.

[32] Ibid.

[33] Letter from Mildred Forbes to Cairine, Letter No. 75, Salonika, August 6th, 1916, in Andrea McKenzie (Ed.), War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes, UBC Press, 2016: 161-162.

[34] Diana J. Mansell, Forging the Future, p. 52.

[35] Dianne Dodd, “Canadian Military Nurse Deaths in the First World War,” p. 348.

[36] Ibid.

[37] Ibid., 349.

[38] Ibid.

[39] Ibid., 328.

[40] Cynthia Toman, “‘A Loyal Body of Empire Citizens’: Military Nurses and Identity at Lemnos and Salonika, 1915-1917,” in Jayne Elliott et al. (Ed.), Place & Practice in Canadian Nursing History, UBC Press, 2016: 15-16.

[41] Dianne Dodd, “Canadian Military Nurse Deaths in the First World War,” p. 344.

[42] Christine E. Hallett, Containing Trauma, p. 201-202.

[43] Ibid., 214-215.

[44] Meryn Stuart, “Social Sisters,” p. 25.

[45] Cynthia Toman, “A Loyal Body of Empire Citizens,” p. 8.

[46] Meryn Stuart, “Social Sisters,” p. 30.

[47] Ibid.

[48] Ibid., 31.

[49] Ibid.

[50] Ibid.

[51] Dianne Dodd, “Canadian Military Nurse Deaths in the First World War,” p. 327.

[52] Ibid.

[53] Cynthia Toman, “A Loyal Body of Empire Citizens,” p. 17.

 

Bibliography:

Dodd, Dianne. “Canadian Military Nurse Deaths in the First World War.” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, Vol 34, Number 2 (Fall 2017): 327-363.

Hallett E., Christine. Containing Trauma: Nursing Work in the First World War. Manchester University Press, 2011.

Letter from Laura Holland to her Mother. Letter No. 28, Lemnos, October 30th, 1915. In Andrea McKenzie (Ed.), War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes. UBC Press, 2016: 84-85.

Letter from Mildred Forbes to Cairine. Letter No. 75, Salonika, August 6th, 1916. In Andrea McKenzie (Ed.), War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes. UBC Press, 2016: 161-162.

Letter from Mildred Forbes to Cairine. Letter No. 76, Salonika, August 7h, 1916. In Andrea McKenzie (Ed.), War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes. UBC Press, 2016: 162-163.

Mann, Susan. “Where Have All The Bluebirds Gone? On The Trail of Canada’s Military Nurses, 1914-1918.” Atlantis: Critical Studies in Gender, Culture & Social Justice, Vol 26.1 (Fall/Winter 2001): 35-44.

Mansell J., Diana. Forging the Future: A History of Nursing in Canada. Thomas Press Publication, 2004.

McKenzie, Andrea (Ed.). War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes. UBC Press, 2016.

Quiney J., Linda. “Assistant Angels: Canadian Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses in the Great War.” CBMH, Vol 15 (1998): 189-206.

Quiney J, Linda. “Gendering Patriotism: Canadian Volunteer Nurses as the Female ‘Soldiers’ of the Great War.” In Sarah Glassford and Amy Shaw (Ed.), A Sisterhood of Suffering and Service: Women and Girls of Canada and Newfoundland During the First World War. UBC Press, 2012: 103-125.

Stuart, Meryn. “Social Sisters: A Feminist Analysis of the Discourse of Canadian Military Nurse Helen Fowlds, 1915-1918.” In Jayne Elliott et al. (Ed.), Place & Practice in Canadian Nursing History. UBC Press, 2008: 25-39.

“The First World War’s Nursing Sisters.” Canadian Nurse (November 2016): 17.

Toman, Cynthia. “‘A Loyal Body of Empire Citizens’: Military Nurses and Identity at Lemnos and Salonika, 1915-1917.” In Jayne Elliott et al. (Ed.), Place & Practice in Canadian Nursing History. UBC Press, 2008: 8-24.

Toman, Cynthia. Sister Soldiers of the Great War: The Nurses of the Canadian Army Medical Corps. UBC Press, 2016.

 

Reflection:

I chose to incorporate my research paper into my ePortfolio because it is an important part of my overall research project. My research paper deals with female Canadian nurses in World War One, which links to one of the main arguments I am discussing throughout my ePortfolio, which is gendered roles in the medical field. This research paper makes many important points that is valuable evidence to support my main argument of my ePortfolio.